Chp. 15

3). Pick one concept from the assigned reading (chapter 15), that we have not already discussed, that you found useful or interesting and discuss it.


Post hoc ergo propter hoc. The Post hoc ergo propter hoc (also known as Post Hoc theory) is basically when a possibly cause is overlooked.  Reading through the examples and explanations in the book, Post Hoc seems to occur when someone jumps to a conclusion that may not be the best possible cause for the effect.  This occurs because we try to find a reason or cause for the effect quickly and jump to conclusions to "understand, explain, so we can control our future" (p. 309 Epstein).  As Epstein calls it, we are concluding to a coincidence instead of the actual cause. Epstein points out how everything in life appears to have a cause, so we are looking for the cause to see why the effect happened, but because the life with live and world we live in is more complex than we can remember, sometimes it may just be a coincidence and may not fully know the cause for things and should not jump to major conclusions so quickly.

Mission Critical Website

2). What was useful about the Mission Critical website?

The Mission Critical website is very helpful for this class.  This website covers plenty of things to help us further our understanding of what we have been learning from the basics (parts of an argument, basic relations), analysis of arguments, and fallacies.  It breaks down everything into categories, then sub categories.  Then to further our understanding, each link further explains the topic with definitions, examples / theoretical situations, and equations.  In addition, there are exercises that you can do to test how much you understand something.  I tried the Causal Argument exercise to test my learning and try out the website.  One fault I see in the exercise portion of the website was that when I would click an answer, it would scroll me down to where the rest of the answers were and then I would accidently see the answer for the next answer because I would get lost where I was on the page since it would relocate you somewhere else on the page.  I know there is a button to get you back to the question, but it could have been constructed better because I originally thought it only hid the rest of the answers instead of relocating the page.

Cause & Effect website

1). What was useful about the Cause and Effect website reading and exercises?


The Cause and Effect website was very useful in understanding Causal Arguments more in depth.  The basic idea of Cause and Effect (Causal), is one event (A) causes the next even (B).  The Cause and Effect website makes you consider more factors about Causal Arguments.  Three main factors to cause and effects are 1. how acceptable or demonstrable the implied comparison is, 2. how likely the causation seems to be, and 3. how credible the "only significance difference" or "only significant commonality" claim is (Causal Arguments).  Basically, we must consider all other things that may have effected the event to happen.  We cannot always say A directly caused B to happen.  There can be other considerations like the possibility that this event occurs often, occurred once, what other possible causes may have occurred, weather, time -- who, what, where, when, what, how --- anything and everything.  For example, Tim spilled water on the floor. Walking by, Sarah slipped on wet floor, which caused her to fall, which made her clothes wet from falling on the wet floor.  One argument that can be made is that if Tim didn't spill water, then Sarah wouldn't have fell on the wet floor.  Another argument can be that if Sarah only saw the wet floor, she could have dodged the fall.  There are multiple causes that can be seen to cause an event to occur.

Chp. 12

3). Pick one concept or idea from the assigned reading, that we have not already discussed, that you found useful or interesting, and discuss it.

Judging analogies. One example of a fallacy in an analogy is having too big of a difference between what is being compared in the reasoning by analogy.  In comparing two situations, you will need premises to support your reasoning.  If the two situations are far in comparison, it can be unclear to understand which will make it a fallacy.  For example, comparing the pollution around the world, to the unhealthy food you consume into your body can be unclear.  Without premises, it is not as convincing because one can see the differences between the world and their body that may not be clearly connected.  This example is in need of premises that help connect the world to our bodies like how we have control over the pollution being made like how we have control over the food we choose to eat.

Deductive Reasoning

2). Sometimes when something is diffciult to understand, it becomes a bit clearer when we try to explain it to someone else.  Which type of reasoning was most difficult to understand?  Please do some additional internet research on that specific type of reasoning and discuss what you learned.


Out of all the reasonings, I found deductive to be the most unclear.  Doing additional research, I have gained a better understanding.  Deductive reasoning can be thought of as a "reduction".  Deductive reasoning is also known as "hypothetico-deduction".  Deductive reasoning starts out with a general idea and breaks down into a more specific case.  The general idea comes from a hypothesis or theory, assuming that it is true, and applies it to the more specific situation.  This reasoning is to show the general hypothesis or theory applies to all cases relevant to it.  For example, the winter is cold in the bay area.  During the winter you should wear warm clothes.  The general statement is the winter being cold which is then applied to the more specific event of what kind of clothes you should wear for the type of weather.

Types of Reasoning Examples

1). Read through the different types of reasoning posted to the instructors blog.  Give an example of each type of reasoning outlined on the instructors blog.  The example should be something the folks in class can relate to, so try to use real world examples. 


Reasoning by Analogy.  Reasoning by Analogy is all about reasoning by comparing to objects with one another.  For example: Emma is a San Jose State student.  She does not have financial aid.  So, she pays full tuition.  Jay attends the same school and does not have financial aid.  So, she will also pay the full tuition.


Sign Reasoning.  Reasoning by Sign is when you reason by using two objects that are closely related to one another.  For example: Where there's construction going on by freeway exits, there will probably be a detour route.  These two are closely tied because this usually happens because they reconstruct the pavement ways onto the exit so they make a detour route for people who may take that exit.  Using it the other way around A detour route probably means there is reconstruction going on.  There may be more reasons for detour like an accident.  You cannot flip the objects because it will make a weak reasoning statement.


Causal Reasoning.  Reasoning by Causal is pretty much the cause and effect of systematical events.  One even effects the other.  For example, drinking alcohol makes you want to use the restroom frequently.


Reasoning by Criteria. Reasoning by Criteria is when you outline the criteria that needs to be met then establish what you need to do to meet that criteria.  For example, Jay wanted a car.  He told her parents that the best way to keep him safe, go to school on time, and be able to get a job was to get a car because then she would not have to wait at a bus stop with unpredictable strangers, not have to depend when other people are going to school, and have her one independent time and way to work.


Reasoning by Example. Reasoning by Example is simply using an example like giving a situation, an event that occurred, or something like a story.  For example, Bob's mom told Bob what happened to one of her friends who drank and drove.  That person ended up in the hospital that night.  This was to reason Bob to not drink and drive.


Inductive. Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning using observation and past experiences.  For example, Angela got hurt in her past relationship because her boyfriend cheated on her.  So now, she reasons with herself to not have a boyfriend for a long while until she can trust another guy intimately again.


Deductive. Deductive reasoning is when the premises are true so the conclusion must be true.  For example, Glenn said he wanted to go to Usher's concert if he were to come to the bay area.  Usher is going to have a concert in the bay area.  Glenn is probably going to Usher's concert.

Chp. 10

3). Pick one concept, idea or exercise from the assigned reading, that we have no already discussed, that you found useful or interesting, and discuss it.

Another idea I found useful is using the prescriptive and descriptive conclusion in the appeal to emotion reasoning.  Using a prescriptive versus a descriptive conclusion can also help you determine whether the reasoning of the argument is good or bad.  Having a descriptive conclusion will make the argument bad.  Epstein states that this "wishful thinking" makes it a bad argument.  A Descriptive conclusion is saying what it is versus what it should be.  The descriptive conclusion states what you "wishfully" think it is, but just because you are making yourself believe it does not make it true.  Like in the example in the book, the man has wishful thinking by thinking the description of him his true, but we cannot be moved by our emotions in such a way to make everything we say or argue makes it true.  In comparison to a prescriptive conclusion, we are saying what it should be.  This helps us whether to believe the claims being stated in the argument and not using descriptive conclusion to convince us.

Pg. 195 Objectives

2). Pertaining to page 195, complete objective 1, 2, 3, 6 or 7. (Please choose only one to complete). 



#2: Find an advertisement that uses apple polishing.  Is it a good argument?

This is a Special K advertisement I found online.  This advertisement uses apple polishing in an appeal to vanity.  It is arguing that if you want to lose weight in a healthy way and feel good about your body, you should eat Special K.  This argument is not necessarily a bad argument.  It is relating your emotion by stating goals like fitting into your skinny jeans or feeling more fit.  It has a premise that you may want to be fit and healthy and Special K is the brand that may offer what you need to reach your goal.  So this appeals to the audience, argues appropriately, and is plausible.  It also has a prescriptive conclusion.  It says has that as a premise that if you want to feel a certain good way about yourself, then you should do this.  If you want to feel healthy and fit, then you should eat Special K. 

Appeal to Emotion

1). Discuss the idea of Appeal to Emotion. There are different aspects of Appeal to Emotion, which type of Appeal to Emotion strikes you, and why?

Appeal to emotion is about using our emotions for reasoning and making arguments.  It is us connecting our reasoning with our emotional connection to the argument being made.  We can connect to different emotions like pity, fear, vanity, spite, good feeling, and more.  These emotions reason us to make certain conclusive decisions about what we do in return to the argument.  For example, using the appeal to fear I believe is a common appeal people use to manipulate others.  Having to scare someone or make them fearful to do something gives reasoning to their reactions to the argument being made.  I think leaders of groups tend to use appeal to fear to make others follow their rule.  Your coach of your sports team can argue that you should practice and condition everyday to stay fit if you do not want to lose your next big game against your next opponent.  Here, you are scared to lose, so you do as your coach says because you believe his argument.